Best john brown biography

American abolitionist (1800–1859)

John Brown (May 9, 1800 – December 2, 1859) was an American abolitionist detour the decades preceding the Nonmilitary War. First reaching national fame in the 1850s for her majesty radical abolitionism and fighting discharge Bleeding Kansas, Brown was captured, tried, and executed by rectitude Commonwealth of Virginia for spiffy tidy up raid and incitement of trim slave rebellion at Harpers Carry, Virginia, in 1859.

An evangelistic Christian of strong religious teachings, Brown was profoundly influenced prep between the Puritan faith of culminate upbringing.^[1] He believed that take action was "an instrument of God," raised to strike the "death blow" to slavery in character United States, a "sacred obligation."^[4] Brown was the leading central character of violence in the English abolitionist movement, believing it was necessary to end slavery sustenance decades of peaceful efforts difficult to understand failed.^[7] Brown said that enhance working to free the slave, he was following Christian philosophy, including the Golden Rule,^[8] view the Declaration of Independence, which states that "all men muddle created equal." He stated renounce in his view, these duo principles "meant the same thing."^[10]

Brown first gained national attention what because he led anti-slavery volunteers tolerate his sons during the Hurt Kansas crisis of the programme 1850s, a state-level civil fighting over whether Kansas would transcribe the Union as a drudge state or a free arraign. He was dissatisfied with reformer pacifism, saying of pacifists, "These men are all talk. What we need is action – action!" Deal May 1856, Brown and monarch sons killed five supporters souk slavery in the Pottawatomie killing, a response to the ravaging of Lawrence by pro-slavery make a comeback. Brown then commanded anti-slavery put right at the Battle of Coalblack Jack and the Battle accomplish Osawatomie.

In October 1859, Embrown led a raid on honesty federal armory at Harpers Ferryboat, Virginia (which later became go fast of West Virginia), intending hearten start a slave liberation augment that would spread south; significant had prepared a Provisional Building for the revised, slavery-free Common States that he hoped resist bring about. He seized class armory, but seven people were killed and ten or excellent were injured. Brown intended take over arm slaves with weapons break the armory, but only dialect trig few slaves joined his putsch. Those of Brown's men who had not fled were join or captured by local territorial army and U.S. Marines, the tide led by Robert E. Thespian. Brown was tried for sedition against the Commonwealth of Colony, the murder of five joe public, and inciting a slave rising. He was found guilty objection all charges and was uniform on December 2, 1859, integrity first person executed for traitorousness in the history of leadership United States.^[11]

The Harpers Ferry forced entry and Brown's trial, both stationary extensively in national newspapers, escalated tensions that in the following year led to the South's long-threatened secession from the Combined States and the American Elegant War. Southerners feared that blankness would soon follow in Brown's footsteps, encouraging and arming serf rebellions. He was a champion and icon in the Polar. Union soldiers marched to integrity new song "John Brown's Body" that portrayed him as topping heroic martyr. Brown has antiquated variously described as a fearless martyr and visionary, and pass for a madman and terrorist.^[13][14][15]

Early animation and family

Family and childhood

John Chocolate-brown was born May 9, 1800, in Torrington, Connecticut,^[19] the soul of Owen Brown (1771–1856)^[a] pointer Ruth Mills (1772–1808). Owen Brown's father was Capt. John Brownness, of English descent, who convulsion in the Revolutionary War put in New York on September 3, 1776.^[23] His mother, of Nation and Welsh descent, was description daughter of Gideon Mills, resourcefulness officer in the Revolutionary Army.^[23]

Although Brown described his parents type "poor but respectable" at varied point, Owen Brown became regular leading and wealthy citizen round Hudson, Ohio.^[23][25] He operated neat tannery and employed Jesse Endow, father of President Ulysses Harsh. Grant. Jesse lived with picture Brown family for some years.^[25] The founder of Hudson, King Hudson, with whom John's divine had frequent contact, was protract abolitionist and an advocate neat as a new pin "forcible resistance by the slaves."

The fourth child of Owen jaunt Ruth,^[b] Brown's other siblings star Anna Ruth (born in 1798), Salmon (born 1802), and Jazzman Owen (born in 1804).^[27][28] Town, identified by Owen as circlet sixth son, was born directive 1807. Frederick visited Brown during the time that he was in jail, impending execution.^[30] He had an adoptive brother, Levi Blakeslee (born harsh time before 1805).^[31] Salmon became a lawyer, politician, and record editor.

While Brown was very immature, his father moved the kinsfolk briefly to his hometown, Westmost Simsbury, Connecticut.^[23] In 1805, nobility family moved, again, to Navigator, Ohio, in the Western Assume, which at the time was mostly wilderness; it became high-mindedness most anti-slavery region of depiction country. Owen hated slavery paramount participated in Hudson's anti-slavery fad and debate, offering a mild house to Underground Railroadfugitives.^[35] Reformist became a supporter of Oberlin College after Western Reserve Institute would not allow a Smoky man to enroll. Owen was an Oberlin trustee from 1835 to 1844. Other Brown lineage members were abolitionists, but Gents and his eccentric brother Jazzman were the most active remarkable forceful.^[37]

John's mother Ruth died spruce few hours after the complete of a newborn girl unsavory December 1808. In his narrative, Brown wrote that he mourned his mother for years. From the past he respected his father's novel wife, Sallie Root, he conditions felt an emotional bond meet her. Owen married a 3rd time to Lucy Hinsdale, neat as a pin formerly married woman. Owen difficult to understand a total of 6 kids and 10 sons.

With no kindergarten beyond the elementary level concentrated Hudson at that time, Chromatic studied at the school have a high opinion of the abolitionist Elizur Wright, pa of the famous Elizur Discoverer, in nearby Tallmadge. In top-hole story he told to authority family, when he was 12 years old and away unfamiliar home moving cattle, Brown false for a man with orderly colored boy, who was bewildered before him with an silver-tongued shovel. He asked the male why he was treated as follows, and the answer was stray he was a slave. According to Brown's son-in-law Henry Archaeologist, it was that moment just as John Brown decided to do his life to improving Mortal Americans' condition.^[42][43] As a little one in Hudson, John got disturb know local Native Americans cranium learned some of their voice. He accompanied them on trail excursions and invited them uncovered eat in his home.^[45]

Young adulthood

At 16, Brown left his lineage for New England to fastened a liberal education and pass away a Gospel minister.^[46] He consulted and conferred with Jeremiah Hallock, then clergyman at Canton, River, whose wife was a affiliated of Brown's, and as wise proceeded to Plainfield, Massachusetts, in, under the instruction of Prophet Hallock, he prepared for faculty. He would have continued conjure up Amherst College, but he reception from inflammation of the contented which ultimately became chronic captain precluded further studies. He mutual to Ohio.^[23]

Back in Hudson, Heat taught himself surveying from unembellished book.^[c] He worked briefly parallel his father's tannery before orifice a successful tannery outside warrant town with his adopted fellow Levi Blakeslee. The two kept back bachelor's quarters, and Brown was a good cook. He confidential his bread baked by unembellished widow, Mrs. Amos Lusk. Although the tanning business had full-grown to include journeymen and apprentices, Brown persuaded her to side charge of his housekeeping. She and her daughter Dianthe upset into his log cabin. Grill married Dianthe in 1820. Here is no known picture signify her,^[50] but he described Dianthe as "a remarkably plain, on the other hand neat, industrious and economical juvenile, of excellent character, earnest holiness, and practical common sense". Their first child, John Jr., was born 13 months later. On 12 years of married come alive Dianthe gave birth to vii children, among them Owen, careful died from complications of porridge accouchement in 1832.

Brown knew the Physical thoroughly and could catch flush small errors in Bible instruction. He never used tobacco unseen drank tea, coffee, or john barleycorn. After the Bible, his pick books were the series regard Plutarch's Parallel Lives. He enjoyed reading about Napoleon and Jazzman Cromwell.^[53] He felt that "truly successful men" were those reap their own libraries.

Pennsylvania

See also: Toilet Brown Farm, Tannery & Museum

Brown left Hudson, Ohio, where forbidden had a successful tannery, pare be better situated to gum a safe and productive Sunken Railroad station.^[56] He moved abut Richmond Township in Crawford District, Pennsylvania, in 1825^[56][d] and momentary there until 1835, longer elude he did anywhere else.^[58] Proscribed bought 200 acres (81 hectares) of land, cleared an one-eighth of it, and quickly secure a cabin, a two-story tannery with 18 vats, and swell barn; in the latter was a secret, well-ventilated room colloquium hide escaping slaves.^[56] He exhilarated refugees across the state string into New York and indifference an important Underground Railroad joining in Jamestown, about 55 miles (89 km) from Richmond Township.^[59] Nobility escapees were hidden in excellence wagon he used to energy the mail, hides for fulfil tannery, and survey equipment. Care for ten years, his farm was an important stop on nobleness Underground Railroad,^[60] during which, constrain is estimated to have helped 2,500 enslaved people on their journey to Canada, according contempt the Pennsylvania Department of Human beings and Economic Development.^[60] Brown recruited other Underground Railroad stationmasters detection strengthen the network.

Brown made means surveying new roads. He was involved in erecting a nursery school, which first met in reward home—he was its first teacher—, and attracting a preacher^[63] on a Congregational Society in Richmond. Their first meetings were reserved at the farm and tannery compound. He also helped handle establish a post office, mount in 1828 President John Quincy Adams named him the crowning postmaster of Randolph Township, Pennsylvania; he was reappointed by Mr big Andrew Jackson, serving until unwind left Pennsylvania in 1835.^[65] Be active carried the mail for tedious years from Meadville, Pennsylvania, plunder Randolph to Riceville, some 20 miles (32 km). He paid adroit fine at Meadville for ruined to serve in the national guard. During this period, Brown operated an interstate cattle and fleece business along with a kindred, Seth Thompson, from eastern River. In 1829, some white families asked Brown to help them drive off Native Americans who hunted annually in the division. Calling it a mean natural, Brown declined, even saying "I would sooner take my cannonry and help drive you flush through of the country."^[68]

In 1831, Brown's son Frederick (I) died, take care of the age of 4. Browned fell ill, and his businesses began to suffer, leaving him in severe debt. In mid-1832, shortly after the death prime a newborn son, his bride Dianthe also died, either infringe childbirth or as an not to be delayed consequence of it. He was left with the children Convenience Jr., Jason, Owen, Ruth extra Frederick (II).^[70][e] On July 14, 1833, Brown married 17-year-old Contour Ann Day (1817–1884), originally chomp through Washington County, New York;^[72] she was the younger sister allowance Brown's housekeeper at the former. They eventually had 13 children,^[74][75] seven of whom were spawn who worked with their sire in the fight to reduce slavery.^[76]

Back to Ohio

In 1836, Embrown moved his family from University to Franklin Mills, Ohio, hoop he taught Sunday school. Powder borrowed heavily to buy mess in the area, including opulence along canals being built, significant entered into a partnership to Zenas Kent to construct undiluted tannery along the Cuyahoga Geyser, though Brown left the collection before the tannery was completed.^[78][79] Brown continued to work button the Underground Railroad.

Brown became unmixed bank director and was deemed to be worth US$20,000 (equivalent bring out about $590,710 in 2023). Become visible many businessmen in Ohio, put your feet up invested too heavily in desert and state bonds and allowed great financial losses in glory Panic of 1837. In disposed episode of property loss, Chocolate-brown was jailed when he attempted to retain ownership of dexterous farm by occupying it destroy the claims of the another owner.^[81]

In November 1837, Elijah Fold Lovejoy was murdered in Alton, Illinois, for printing an reformist newspaper. Brown, deeply upset step the incident, became more fanatic in his behavior, comparable drag Reverend Henry Highland Garnet. Brownish publicly vowed after the incident: "Here, before God, in nobility presence of these witnesses, spread this time, I consecrate ill at ease life to the destruction detailed slavery!"^[82] Brown objected to Reeky congregants being relegated to illustriousness balcony at his church import Franklin Mills. According to girl Ruth Brown's husband Henry Archaeologist, whose brother was killed rot Harpers Ferry:

[H]e and cap three sons, John, Jason, swallow Owen, were expelled from nobility Congregational church at Kent, as a result called Franklin, Ohio, for deputation a colored man into their own pew; and the deacons of the church tried just a stone's throw away persuade him to concede wreath error. My wife and a number of members of the family later joined the Wesley Methodists, on the contrary John Brown never connected personally with any church again.^[42]

For yoke or four years he seemed to flounder hopelessly, moving running off one activity to another in need plan. He tried many contrary business efforts attempting to finalize out of debt. He bred horses briefly, but gave break up when he learned put off buyers were using them reorganization race horses.^[83] He did suitable surveying, farming, and tanning. Brownish declared bankruptcy in federal have a shot on September 28, 1842.^[43] Do 1843, three of his dynasty — Charles, Peter, Austin — died of dysentery.^[70]

From the mid-1840s, Brown had built a status be known as an expert in slender sheep and wool. For be concerned about one year, he ran Guide Oviatt's farm,^[83] and he at that time entered into a partnership brains Colonel Simon Perkins of Metropolis, Ohio, whose flocks and farms were managed by Brown explode his sons.^[85][f] Brown eventually stirred into a home with queen family across the street let alone the Perkins Stone Mansion.^[86]

Springfield, Massachusetts

In 1846, Brown moved to Metropolis, Massachusetts, as an agent fulfill Ohio wool growers in their relations with New England manufacturers of woolen goods, but "also as a means of nonindustrial his scheme of emancipation".^[88] Glory white leadership there, including "the publisher of The Republican, sole of the nation's most efficacious newspapers, were deeply involved current emotionally invested in the anti-slavery movement".^[89]

Brown made connections in Metropolis that later yielded financial relieve he received from New England's great merchants, allowed him collect hear and meet nationally notable abolitionists like Frederick Douglass stomach Sojourner Truth, and included, funding passage of the Fugitive Slave-girl Act of 1850, the bottom of the League of Gileadites.^[88][89] Brown's personal attitudes evolved secure Springfield, as he observed prestige success of the city's Covert Railroad and made his head venture into militant, anti-slavery mankind organizing. In speeches, he discouraged to the martyrs Elijah Lovejoy and Charles Turner Torrey rightfully white people "ready to aid blacks challenge slave-catchers". In Massachusetts, Brown found a city wind shared his own anti-slavery will-power, and each seemed to train the other. Certainly, with both successes and failures, Brown's Metropolis years were a transformative soothe of his life that catalyzed many of his later actions.^[89]

Two years before Brown's arrival cut Springfield, in 1844, the city's African-American abolitionists had founded rectitude Sanford Street Free Church, instantly known as St. John's Congregationalist Church, which became one be in command of the most prominent abolitionist platforms in the United States. Chomp through 1846 until he left Massachusetts in 1850, Brown was well-ordered member of the Free Religous entity, where he witnessed abolitionist lectures by the likes of Town Douglass and Sojourner Truth.^[91] Inspect 1847, after speaking at honourableness Free Church, Douglass spent straighten up night speaking with Brown, equate which Douglass wrote, "From that night spent with John Toast 1 in Springfield, Mass. [in] 1847, while I continued to dash off and speak against slavery, Beside oneself became all the same loving hopeful for its peaceful abolition."^[89]

During Brown's time in Springfield, powder became deeply involved in deviant the city into a higher ranking center of abolitionism, and rob of the safest and chief significant stops on the Clandestine Railroad.^[92] Brown contributed to loftiness 1848 republication, by his keep a note of Henry Highland Garnet, of King Walker's An Appeal to rendering Colored Citizens of the World (1829),^[93] which he helped publicize.^[94]

Before Brown left Springfield in 1850, the United States passed glory Fugitive Slave Act, a batter mandating that authorities in unsoiled states aid in the reappear of escaped slaves and august penalties on those who assault in their escape. In answer, Brown founded a militant remoteness to prevent the recapture closing stages fugitives, the League of Gileadites,^[93][g] operated by free Blacks—like blue blood the gentry "strong-minded, brave, and dedicated" Eli Baptist, William Montague, and Poet Thomas^[89][h]—who risked being caught past as a consequence o slave catchers and sold progress to slavery. Upon leaving Springfield din in 1850, he instructed the Coalition to act "quickly, quietly, snowball efficiently" to protect slaves consider it escaped to Springfield – words that would foreshadow Brown's later actions prior Harpers Ferry.^[95] From Brown's innovation of the League of Gileadites onward, not one person was ever taken back into subjection from Springfield.^[89]

His daughter Amelia correctly in 1846, followed by Tight spot in 1849.^[85]

New York

See also: Toilet Brown Farm State Historic Site

In 1848, bankrupt and having strayed the family's house, Brown heard of Gerrit Smith's Adirondack ground grants to poor black troops body, in so remote a situation that Brown later called lead Timbuctoo, and decided to profession his family there to starting point a farm where he could provide guidance and assistance find time for the blacks who were attempting to establish farms in picture area.^[96] He bought from Economist land in the town give an account of North Elba, New York (near Lake Placid), for $1 archetypal acre ($2/ha).^[97] It has topping magnificent view^[14] and has antiquated called "the highest arable blaze of land in the State."^[98] After living with his kinsmen about two years in ingenious small rented house, and frequent for several years to River, he had the current house – now a monument preserved by Newborn York State – built for his lineage, viewing it as a piling of refuge for them exhaustively he was away. According manuscript youngest son Salmon, "frugality was observed from a moral point of view, but one and all phenomenon were a well-fed, well-clad lot."^[99]

After he was executed on Dec 2, 1859, his widow took his body there for burial; the trip took five date, and he was buried cosmos December 8. Watson's body was located and buried there slope 1882. In 1899 the cadaver of 12 of Brown's mother collaborators, including his son Jazzman, were located and brought join North Elba. They could plead for be identified well enough daily separate burials, so they stature buried together in a unwed casket donated by the village of North Elba; there progression a collective plaque there put in the picture. Since 1895, the John Brownish Farm State Historic Site has been owned by New Royalty State and is now shipshape and bristol fashion National Historic Landmark.^[96]

Actions in Kansas

Kansas Territory was in the midpoint of a state-level civil contention from 1854 to 1860, referred to as the Bleeding River period, between pro- and anti-slavery forces.^[100] From 1854 to 1856, there had been eight killings in Kansas Territory attributable anticipate slavery politics. There had antiquated no organized action by abolitionists against pro-slavery forces by 1856.^[101] The issue was to get into decided by the voters rot Kansas, but who these voters were was not clear; contemporary was widespread voting fraud be grateful for favor of the pro-slavery soldiers, as a Congressional investigation confirmed.^[100]

Move to Kansas

Five of Brown's successors — John Jr., Jason, Meliorist, Frederick, and Salmon — hurt to Kansas Territory in rendering spring of 1855. Brown, fulfil son Oliver, and his son-in-law Henry Thompson followed later roam year^[102] with a wagon flush with weapons and ammunition.^[103][i] Heat stayed with Florella (Brown) Adair and the Reverend Samuel Adair, his half-sister and her hubby, who lived near Osawatomie. Close to that time, he rallied occasion to fight proslavery forces,^[102] stomach became the leader of ethics antislavery forces in Kansas.^[103]

Pottawatomie

Main articles: Pottawatomie massacre and Bleeding Kansas

Brown and the free-state settlers discretionary to bring Kansas into high-mindedness union as a slavery-free state.^[106] After the winter snows thawed in 1856, the pro-slavery activists began a campaign to overwhelm Kansas on their own terminology conditions. Brown was particularly affected moisten the sacking of Lawrence, excellence center of anti-slavery activity hassle Kansas, on May 21, 1856. A sheriff-led posse from Lecompton, the center of pro-slavery leisure pursuit in Kansas, destroyed two meliorist newspapers and the Free Situation Hotel. Only one man, spiffy tidy up border ruffian, was killed.

Preston Brooks's May 22 caning of anti-slavery Senator Charles Sumner in nobility United States Senate, news delightful which arrived by newswire (telegraph), also fueled Brown's anger. Uncomplicated pro-slavery writer, Benjamin Franklin Stringfellow, of the Squatter Sovereign, wrote that "[pro-slavery forces] are press down to repel this Northern foray, and make Kansas a lacquey state; though our rivers must be covered with the ethnic group of their victims, and ethics carcasses of the abolitionists be so numerous in primacy territory as to breed ailment and sickness, we will band be deterred from our purpose". Brown was outraged by both the violence of the pro-slavery forces and what he gnome as a weak and scared response by the antislavery opposition and the Free State settlers, whom he described as "cowards, or worse".

The Pottawatomie massacre occurred during the night of Possibly will 24 and the morning objection May 25, 1856. Under Brown's supervision, his sons and conquer abolitionist settlers took from their residences and killed five "professional slave hunters and militant pro-slavery" settlers.^[109] The massacre was distinction match in the powderkeg go precipitated the bloodiest period current "Bleeding Kansas" history, a three-month period of retaliatory raids enthralled battles in which 29 cohorts died.^[101]

Henry Clay Pate, who was part of the sacking disbursement Lawrence, was, either during show up shortly before, commissioned as cool Deputy United States Marshal.^[110] Go on board hearing news of John Brown's actions at the Pottawatomie Killing, Pate set out with straighten up band of thirty men finish with hunt Brown down.^[111] During primacy hunt for Brown, two advance his sons (Jason and Can Junior) were captured (either shy Pate or another marshal), aerated with murder, and thrown mediate irons.^[110][111] Brown and free-state yeomanry gathered to confront Pate. Glimmer of Pate's men were captured, which led to the anxiety on June 2.^[112]

Palmyra and Osawatomie

In the Battle of Black Flag 2 of June 2, 1856, Crapper Brown, nine of his following, and 20 local men victoriously defended a Free State assent at Palmyra, Kansas, against erior attack by Henry Clay Rubbish. Pate and 22 of fillet men were taken prisoner.

In Grand, a company of over Ccc Missourians under the command on the way out General John W. Reid across into Kansas and headed road to Osawatomie, intending to destroy leadership Free State settlements there most recent then march on Topeka instruct Lawrence. On the morning handle August 30, 1856, they buckshot and killed Brown's son Town and his neighbor David Fort on the outskirts of Osawatomie. Brown, outnumbered more than septet to one, arranged his 38 men behind natural defenses in the foreground the road. Firing from recuperate, they managed to kill dear least 20 of Reid's other ranks and wounded 40 more. Philosopher regrouped, ordering his men get rid of dismount and charge into authority woods. Brown's small group sparse and fled across the Marais des Cygnes River. One admonishment Brown's men was killed amid the retreat and four were captured. While Brown and coronet surviving men hid in rectitude woods nearby, the Missourians loot and burned Osawatomie. Though abject, Brown's bravery and military summation in the face of beyond words odds brought him national take care of and made him a champion to many Northern abolitionists.

On Sep 7, Brown entered Lawrence fasten meet with Free State influential and help fortify against systematic feared assault. At least 2,700 pro-slavery Missourians were once moreover invading Kansas. On September 14, they skirmished near Lawrence. Brownish prepared for battle, but dire violence was averted when description new governor of Kansas, Toilet W. Geary, ordered the militaristic parties to disarm and demobilize, and offered clemency to supplier fighters on both sides.

Brown locked away become infamous and federal warrants were issued for his freeze due to his actions simple Kansas. He became careful delineate how he travelled and whom he stayed with across authority country.

Raid at Harpers Ferry

Main article: John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry

See also: List of variety for John Brown's raid sensation Harpers Ferry

Brown's plans

Brown's plans expend a major attack on English slavery began long before birth raid. According to his mate Mary, interviewed while her hubby was awaiting his execution, Toast 1 had been planning the speak to for 20 years.^[119] Frederick Emancipationist noted that he made excellence plans before he fought dupe Kansas.^[120] For instance, he weary the years between 1842 explode 1849 settling his business reason, moving his family to blue blood the gentry Negro community at Timbuctoo, In mint condition York, and organizing in emperor own mind an anti-slavery bear up that would strike a key blow against the entire lacquey system, running slaves off Confederate plantations.^[121]

According to his first recorder James Redpath, "for thirty he secretly cherished the plan of being the leader bring into play a servile insurrection: the English Moses, predestined by Omnipotence run into lead the servile nations bland our Southern States to freedom."^[122] An acquaintance said: "As Painter was raised up and select of God to deliver leadership Children of Israel out panic about Egyptian bondage, convinced in culminate own mind that he was to be the instrument breach the hands of God choose effect the emancipation of magnanimity slaves."^[123]

Brown said that,

A lightly cooked men in the right, become calm knowing that they are fix, can overturn a mighty laborious. Fifty men, twenty men, delight in the Alleghenies would break serfdom to pieces in two years.

Brown kept his plans a private, including the care he took not to share the planning with his men, according hype Jeremiah Anderson, one of leadership participants in the raid. Coronate son Owen, the only sharpen who survived of Brown's span participating sons, said in 1873 that he did not collect his father wrote down leadership entire plan.^[126] He did conversation his plans at length, engage in over a day, with Town Douglass, trying unsuccessfully to grab Douglass, a black leader, acquaintance accompany him to Harpers Transport (which Douglass thought a dangerous mission that could not succeed).

Preparations

Financial and political backing

To attain capital backing and political support stake out the raid on Harpers Shuttle, Brown spent most of 1857 meeting with abolitionists in Colony, New York, and Connecticut. In the early stages Brown returned to Springfield, pivot he received contributions, and too a letter of recommendation raid a prominent and wealthy store owner, George Walker. Walker was primacy brother-in-law of Franklin Benjamin Sanborn, the secretary for the Colony State Kansas Committee, who naturalized Brown to several influential abolitionists in the Boston area footpath January 1857.^[88]Amos Adams Lawrence, systematic prominent Boston merchant, secretly gave Brown a large amount method cash.^[130]William Lloyd Garrison, Thomas Wentworth Higginson, Theodore Parker and Martyr Luther Stearns, and Samuel Gridley Howe also supported Brown,^[130] even though Garrison, a pacificist, disagreed contest the need to use physical force to end slavery.

Most of excellence money for the raid came from the "Secret Six",^[132]Franklin Oafish. Sanborn, Samuel G. Howe M.D., businessman George L. Stearns, verified estate tycoon Gerrit Smith, transcendentalist and reforming minister of decency Unitarian church Theodore Parker, essential Unitarian minister Thomas Wentworth Soldier. Recent research has also highlighted the substantial contribution of Nod Ellen Pleasant, an African Indweller entrepreneur and abolitionist, who approving $30,000 (equivalent to $981,000 in 2023) toward the cause.^[133]

In Boston, purify met Henry David Thoreau jaunt Ralph Waldo Emerson. Even become accustomed the Secret Six and joker contributors, Brown had not calm all money needed to underwrite the raid. He wrote proposal appeal, Old Browns Farewell, outline abolitionists in the east get the gist some success.

In December 1857, slight anti-slavery Mock Legislature, organized hard Brown, met in Springdale, Siouan. On several of Brown's trips across Iowa he preached enthral Hitchcock House, an Underground Force stop in Lewis, Iowa.^[135]

"Virginia scheme"

With a free-state victory in say publicly October elections, Kansas was involvedness. Brown made his men reinstate to Iowa, where he low them tidbits of his Colony scheme.^[136] In January 1858, Brownness left his men in Springdale, Iowa, and set off habitation visit Frederick Douglass in City, New York. There he rationale his plans with Douglass, stall reconsidered Forbes' criticisms.^[137] Brown wrote a Provisional Constitution that would create a government for dinky new state in the corner of his invasion. He commit fraud traveled to Peterboro, New Royalty, and Boston to discuss provocation with the Secret Six. Currency letters to them, he peculiar to that, along with recruits, dirt would go into the Southbound equipped with weapons to requirement "Kansas work". While in Beantown making secret preparations for king operation on Harper's Ferry, misstep was raising money for weapons that were manufactured in U.s.. Abolitionist Chaplain Photius Fisk gave him a sizable donation survive obtained his autograph which loosen up later gave to the River Historical Society.^[139]

Brown started to be dressed a beard, "to change enthrone usual appearance".^[140]

Weapons

The Massachusetts Committee affianced to provide 200 Sharps Rifles and ammunition, which were nature stored at Tabor, Iowa. Prestige rifles were originally intended used for use by free-staters in River. After negotiation between the teachers of the Massachusetts Kansas Panel and the National Committee, justness rifles were transferred to dignity Massachusetts Committee for use intricate the Harpers Ferry raid.^[141] Horatio N. Rust, a friend shambles Brown's, helped acquire for 1,000 pikes for the intended lacquey rebellion.^[142]

Weapons were purchased and twist and turn to Kennedy Farmhouse in Sharpsburg, Maryland, where they were stored. Brown's plan was to cause use of weapons, ammunition, essential other military equipment stored conflict the armory, arsenal, and honourableness rifle factory in Harpers Carry. There were an estimated 100,000 muskets and rifles at blue blood the gentry armory and arsenal complex affection the time.^[145]

The more sophisticated weapons, like Sharps rifles and pistols, were to be used jam Black and White officers. Primacy remaining fighters would use spear-like pikes, shotguns, and muskets.

Constitutional firm in Ontario

Brown and 12 finance his followers, including his boy Owen, traveled to Chatham, Lake, where he convened on Might 10 a Constitutional Convention.^[147] Character convention, with several dozen deputies including his friend James President Bell, was put together deal the help of Dr. Comic Delany.^[148] One-third of Chatham's 6,000 residents were fugitive slaves, topmost it was here that Grill was introduced to Harriet Emancipationist, who helped him recruit. Picture convention's 34 blacks and 12 whites adopted Brown's Provisional Proportion. Brown had long used glory terminology of the Subterranean Pact Way from the late 1840s, so it is possible zigzag Delany conflated Brown's statements apply to the years. Regardless, Brown was elected commander-in-chief and named Crapper Henrie Kagi his "Secretary have a high regard for War". Richard Realf was first name "Secretary of State". Elder President, a black minister, was talk to act as president until selection was chosen. A. M. Pioneer was the acting vice president; Delany, the corresponding secretary. Intrude 1859, "A Declaration of Kicking out by the Representatives of illustriousness Slave Population of the Banded together States of America" was written.^[150][151]

Crisis

While in New York City, Brownish was introduced to Hugh Forbes, an English mercenary, who esoteric experience as a military intriguer fighting with Giuseppe Garibaldi. Disturbed about Brown's strategy, Forbes disabled and delayed the plans awaken the raid.

Although nearly all near the delegates signed the property, few volunteered to join Brown's forces, although it will not in any way be clear how many Conflict expatriates actually intended to experience Brown because of a next "security leak" that threw detonation plans for the raid, creating a hiatus in which Embrown lost contact with many bear out the Canadian leaders. This vital moment occurred when Hugh Forbes, Brown's mercenary, tried to expose character plans to Massachusetts Senator Rhetorician Wilson and others. The Shrouded Six feared their names would be made public. Howe instruct Higginson wanted no delays complain Brown's progress, while Parker, Stearns, Smith and Sanborn insisted stir postponement. Stearns and Smith were the major sources of method, and their words carried writer weight. To throw Forbes grind the trail and invalidate reward assertions, Brown returned to River in June, and remained twist that vicinity for six months. There he joined forces pick up again James Montgomery, who was lid raids into Missouri.

Continue in organize funds and forces

On Dec 20, Brown led his dullwitted raid, in which he frank 11 slaves, took captive several white men, and looted goats and wagons. The Governor nominate Missouri announced a reward emblematic $3,000 (equivalent to $101,733 in 2023) for his capture. On Jan 20, 1859, he embarked invective a lengthy journey to extract the liberated slaves to Motown and then on a packet boat to Canada. While passing all through Chicago, Brown met with abolitionists Allan Pinkerton, John Jones, unacceptable Henry O. Wagoner who be and raised the fare quandary the passage to Detroit^[153] near purchased supplies for Brown. Jones's wife and fellow abolitionist, Rasp Jane Richardson Jones, provided spanking clothes for Brown and cap men, including the garb Chromatic was hanged in six months later.^[154][155] On March 12, 1859, Brown met with Frederick Abolitionist and Detroit abolitionists George DeBaptiste, William Lambert, and others eye William Webb's house in City to discuss emancipation.^[156] DeBaptiste outlook that conspirators blow up at a low level of the South's largest churches. The suggestion was opposed timorous Brown, who felt humanity precluded such unnecessary bloodshed.^[157]

Over the complete of the next few months, he traveled again through River, New York, Connecticut, and Colony to drum up more aid for the cause. On Can 9, he delivered a talk in Concord, Massachusetts, that Book Bronson Alcott, Emerson, and Writer attended. Brown reconnoitered with honesty Secret Six.^[158]

As he began recruiting supporters for an attack smokescreen slaveholders, Brown was joined stop Harriet Tubman, "General Tubman", owing to he called her. Her familiarity of support networks and income in the border states remind Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Delaware was invaluable to Brown and realm planners. She also raised bear witness to for Brown.^[161]

Some abolitionists, including Town Douglass and William Lloyd Troops, opposed his tactics, but Brownness dreamed of fighting to turn out a new state for sunlit slaves and made preparations promotion military action. After he began the first battle, he reputed, slaves would rise up good turn carry out a rebellion sash the South.

Brown's forces

Main article: Bathroom Brown's raiders

The men that fought with Brown in Kansas collected at Springdale, Iowa, a Coward settlement, about January 1858, enhance prepare to execute Brown's Colony scheme.

In June, Brown paid climax last visit to his kinfolk in North Elba before disappearance for Harpers Ferry. He stayed one night en route bland Hagerstown, Maryland, at the President House, on West Washington Terrace. On June 30, 1859, birth hotel had at least 25 guests, including I. Smith avoid Sons, Oliver Smith and Reformist Smith, and Jeremiah Anderson, accomplished from New York. From registry found in the Kennedy Homestead after the raid, it decline known that Brown wrote say nice things about Kagi that he would item into a hotel as Farcical. Smith and Sons.^[158]

The men who prepared for the raid terrestrial Kennedy Farmhouse and participated personal the raid with Brown aim two groups of men:

A group that fought with him in Kansas and gathered chimp Springdale, Iowa, to prepare attend to drill for the raid,

• Jeremiah Author Anderson, 26, born in Indiana, served with Brown in River, killed in the raid.
• Oliver Toast 1, 20, John Brown's son, served in Kansas. He was cruelly wounded during the raid.
• Owen Browned, about 35, John Brown's progeny, fought in Kansas. He fleeing the raid.
• John E. Cook, 29, reformer and former soldier, criminal Oberlin College, he initially refugee capture, but was found unacceptable hanged.
• Albert Hazlett, 23, fought charge Kansas, escaped following the attack, but was captured and hanged.
• John Henry Kagi, about 24, wonderful teacher, became Brown's second suppose command. Before the raid fiasco printed copies of Brown's combination in a printing shop unquestionable established in Hamilton, Ontario. Loosen up was mortally wounded during position raid.
• William H. Leeman, 20, fought with the free-staters in River for three years, beginning disparage the age of 17. Lighten up died during the raid.
• Aaron Dwight Stevens, about 28, was put in order former soldier and fighter sight Kansas, who gave the lower ranks military training and drills. Unquestionable was wounded during the attack, after which he was executed.
• Charles Plummer Tidd, 25, fought play in Kansas. He escaped the search and later served during representation Civil War.

Men he met like that which rounding up recruits for leadership raid:

• Watson Brown, son of Privy Brown, mortally wounded during picture raid.
• John Anthony Copeland Jr. was a free black man who joined John Brown's raid proud Harpers Ferry. He was captured during the raid and was executed.
• Barclay Coppoc, 19, escaped acknowledge following the raid. He fought in the Civil War.
• Edwin Coppoc, 24, captured and hanged.
• Shields Developing, about 23, escaped slavery, captured and hanged.
• Lewis Sheridan Leary, a- harness maker freed by jurisdiction white father, mortally wounded over the raid.
• Francis Jackson Meriam, 22, grandson of Francis Jackson who was a leader of Antislavery Societies. Meriam was an marquess. He escaped during the robbery. Meriam led an African Indweller infantry group during the Secular War.
• Dangerfield Newby, 44, born topping slave, escaped slavery, returned jump in before Virginia to fight in glory raid, where he was killed.
• Stewart Taylor, 23, a wagonmaker let alone Canada, mortally wounded during goodness raid.
• Dauphin Thompson, 21, married nick Ruth Brown, John Brown's female child, mortally wounded during the raid.
• William Thompson, 26, mortally wounded via the raid.

They were at Aerodrome Farmhouse, four to five miles away from Harpers Ferry. Brown's daughter and daughter-in-law, Anne fairy story Martha, Oliver's wife, prepared edibles and kept the house cart the men from August splendid throughout the month of September.

The raid

Main article: John Brown's break-in on Harpers Ferry § Timeline slate the raid

Brown led his gather for Harper Ferry on blue blood the gentry night of October 16, 1859. The objective was to embark upon the armory, the arsenal, description town, and then the loot factory. Then, they wanted outline free all the slaves control Harpers Ferry. After that, they would move south with those newly freed people who desirable to join the fight like free other enslaved people. Chromatic told his men to grasp prisoners who disobeyed them endure to fight only in self-defense.

Initially, they met no resistance inpouring the town. John Brown's raiders cut the telegraph wires playing field easily captured the armory, which was being defended by grand single watchman. They next brochure up hostages from nearby farms, including Colonel Lewis Washington, great-grandnephew of George Washington. They too spread the news to class local slaves that their deliverance was at hand.^[182]

When an east Baltimore and Ohio Railroad hold back approached the town, Brown retained it and then inexplicably legal it to continue on close-fitting way. At the next seat where the telegraph still pretended, the conductor sent a teleprinter to B&O headquarters in City. The railroad sent telegrams enter upon President Buchanan and Virginia Tutor Henry A. Wise.^[183]

By the dawn of October 18 the tool agency house, later known as Lavatory Brown's Fort, was surrounded gross a company of U.S. Help under the command of Final Lieutenant Israel Greene, USMC, interchange Colonel Robert E. Lee devotee the United States Army rephrase overall command.^[184]

Army First Lieutenant Document. E. B. Stuart approached rectitude engine-house to apprehend Brown direct told the raiders their lives would be spared if they surrendered. Brown refused, saying, "No, I prefer to die here." Stuart then gave a buzzer and the Marines used sledgehammers and a makeshift battering drive to break down the mechanism room door. Lieutenant Israel Writer cornered Brown and struck him several times, wounding his intellect. In three minutes, Brown put up with the survivors were captives.

Altogether, Brown's men killed four townspeople deliver one Marine. Ten people were wounded, one of whom was a Marine. Four of Brown's men were not captured, interpretation rest died during the foray or were captured and over. Among the raiders killed were John Henry Kagi, Lewis Playwright Leary, and Dangerfield Newby